Descriptions Of Major Wood Groups, Genera, Generic Groups & Species

Hardwoods

The term hardwood is a general term for flowering trees (Angiosperms) that usually have broad leaves that are shed (deciduous) and produce fruits. The term originated as a description of the hardness of the wood, although there are some soft hardwoods like Balsa (Ochroma spp.).

Ash (Fraxinus spp./Oleaceae) is composed of 40 to 70 species, with 21 in Central and North America and 50 species in Eurasia. All species look alike microscopically. The commercial ashes are, to my knowledge:

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name	Scientific Name
Black Ash	F. nigra	Common Ash	F. excelsior
Blue Ash	F. quadrangulata	Flowering Ash	F. ornus
Green Ash	F. pennsylvanica	Narrow-Leaved Ash	F. angustifolia
Pumpkin Ash	F. profunda
White Ash	F. americana

Basswood (Tilia spp./Tiliaceae), also known as Lime in England and Europe, consists of 30 to 35 species native to Eurasia(30) and North America(4). All species look alike microscopically. American Basswood (Tilia americana) currently grows in the northeast US from Minnesota to Maine and from the Virginia Appalachians to southwest Missouri. The European Linden (Tilia europaea) is native to Russia, Austria, Germany, France, the Netherlands and England. A favorite wood for carvings, such as those by Grinling Gibbons. Basswood is also used as a secondary wood in furniture, as a ground for inlay and japanning work. It is currently used for veneer, plywood, trunk panels ,valise panels, core stock, slack cooperage, excelsior, boxes and crates, woodenware, novelties, shade and map rollers and piano keys.

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
American Basswood	T. americana	Broad-Leaved Lime	T. platyphyllos
Carolina Basswood	T. caroliniana	European Lime	T. vulgaris
		Silver Lime	T. tomentosa
		Samll-Leaved Lime	T. cordata

Beech (Fagus spp./Fagaceae) contains 8 species that grow in Asia (4), Europe (F. sylvatica) and North America (F. grandifolia). All species look alike microscopically.

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
American Beech	F. grandifolia	Beech	F. sylvatica

Birch (Betula spp./Betulaceae) is composed of 30 to 50 species growing in Asia (12), North America (4) and Europe (4). All species look alike microscopically. The common commercial species are to my knowledge:

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
Gray Birch	B. populifolia	Hairy Birch		B. pubescens
Paper Birch	B. papyrifera	Silver Birch	B. pendula
River Birch	B. nigra
Sweet Birch	B. lenta
Yellow Birch	B. alleghaniensis

Burls, also known as burrs, are abnormal bulges produced by nearly all kinds of trees. The grain, or orientation of cells, is extremely irregular, making microscopic identification difficult. The figure produced in burls is often beautiful, and they have traditionally been made into bowls or turned objects. Hinckley¹ mentions ash burl several times used as veneer.

¹Hinckley, F.L. 1960. Directory of historic cabinet woods. Bonanza Books, New York.

Cedrela (Cedrela spp./Meliaceae). The Genus Cedrela contains about 8 species native to tropical America (Mexico to Argentina). The main commercial species is C. odorata, known as Spanish cedar or cedro. There is a closely related species from the Old World (Asia) now known as toon or Australian red cedar (Toona spp.), formerly known as Cedrela toona. All species of Cedrela look alike microscopically. Cedrela wood appears occasionally in colonial furniture but is the premier wood for carved Santos from Central and South America.

Cherry (Prunus spp./Rosaceae). The genus Prunus contains between 200-400 species distributed in most parts of the world, especially the northern temperate regions (North America, Asia and Europe/Mediterranean). This genus includes cherries, plums, peaches, almonds and apricots. All species look alike microscopically, however, woods in this genus with a reddish cast (light or dark red) with a light ray fleck are assumed to be cherry. The three main commercial species are, to my knowledge:

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
Black Cherry	P. serotina	Bird Cherry	P. padus
		Wild Cherry	P. avium

Chestnut (Castanea spp./Fagaceae) contains 7 to 12 species distributed in North America (4) and Europe (1). Chestnut (Castanea sativa) was introduced into England by the Romans probably as food for domestic animals. North American trees were virtually wiped out by the fungus Endothia parasitica. Species hybridize with each other. All species look alike microscopically.

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
American Chestnut	C. dentata	Sweet Chestnut	C. sativa

Elm (Ulmus spp./Ulmaceae) contains 18 to 45 species native to Asia(11), Europe and Mediterranean region(6), South & Central America(7) and North America(7). There are species on both sides of the Atlantic that look alike microscopically.

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
American Elm	U. americana	English Elm	U. procera
Rock Elm	U. thomasii	Fluttering Elm	U. laevis
Slippery Elm	U. rubra	Smoothed-Leaved Elm	U. minor
Winged Elm	U. alata	Wych Elm	U. glabra

Fruitwoods are composed of Apple (Malus spp.) & Pear (Pyrus spp.).

Apple (Malus spp./Rosaceae) consists of at least 30 species that occur on both sides of the Atlantic. Can be confused with the other fruitwood Pear, also in the Rose Family (Rosaceae). The common apple was introduced into North America by the colonial English and had quickly escaped cultivation, spreading across southern Canada and the continental United States.

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
Southern Crab Apple	M. angustifolia	Common Apple	M. sylvestris
Sweet Crab Apple	M. coronaria	Old Name	(Pyrus malus)

Pear (Pyrus spp./Rosaceae) consists of at least 20 species native to Eurasia and the Mediterranean. Like the apple, the Common Pear was introduced into North America by the colonial English and had quickly escaped cultivation, spreading across southern Canada and the continental United States.

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
		Almond-Leaved Pear	P. amygdaliformis
		Common Pear	P. communis
		Wild Pear	P. pyraster
		????	P. nivalis
		????	P. eleagrifolia

Red Gum or Sweet Gum (Liquidambar/Hammelidaceae) contains 3 to 4 species that grow in North America (1) and Central America, southwest Asia, eastern China and Taiwan. All species look alike microscopically.

Hackberry (Celtis spp./Ulmaceae) contains about 60 species, mostly tropical, but at least 4 temperate species, with the wood being used for charcoal, fence posts and fuel and the bark for a yellow dye. The European species (C. australis) is widely planted in the Mediterranean region for its timber. The fruits of this species were the lotus referred to in Homer’s Odyssey.

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
Georgia Hackberry	C. tenuifolia	Nettle Tree	C. australis
Hackberry	C. occidentalis
Sugarberry	C. laevigata

Hazel (Corylus spp./Corylaceae) is comprised of about 10 northern temperate species, with 3 in Eurasia. The fruits are known as Hazels or Filberts.

Eastern North America		Eurasia
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
American Hazel	C. americana	Hazel	C. avellana
		Turkish Hazel	C. colurna
		Filbert	C. maxima

Hickory (Carya spp./Juglandaceae) is composed of at least 16 species native to Asia (4), Central America (4) and North America (11). The European species became extinct during the Ice Age. This genus can be split into the True Hickory Group and the Pecan Group based on microanatomy. See Taras, M.A. and B.F. Kukachka. 1970. Forest Products Journal 20(4): 58-59.

Holly (Ilex spp./Aquifoliaceae) is composed of about 400 species with a cosmopolitan distribution, especially the temperate and tropical regions of Asia and the Americas. All species look alike microscopically.

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
American Holly	I. opaca	Holly	I. aquifolium
Carolina Holly	I. ambigua
Common Winterberry	I. verticillata
Sarvis Holly	I. amelanchier

Hornbeam (Carpinus spp. & Ostrya spp./Betulaceae) contains about 45 northern temperate species. Also known as Ironwood.

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
American Hornbeam	C. caroliniana	Hornbeam	Carpinus. betulus
Eastern Hophornbeam	O. virginiana	Hop-Hornbeam	Ostrya carpinifolia

Horse Chestnut (Aesculus spp./Hippocastanaceae) contains about 13 species, which grow in the United States [6], Mexico [1] and Eurasia [6]. Species cannot be separated based on microanatomy. The name aesculus is a Latin name of a European oak or other mast-bearing tree.

Laburnum (Laburnum spp./Leguminosae) is comprised of about 31 species, 3 of which are native to south central and south eastern Europe. The dark, hard wood is used as an ebony substitute in inlays and musical instruments.

Lacewood (family Proteaceae) consists of about 75 genera and 1350 species of evergreen shrubs and trees, most of which are native to Australia and South Africa. The main timber genera include Banksia Grevillea, Knightia, Orites & Panopsis.

Locust, Black (Robinia spp./Leguminosae) is composed of about 10 species native to eastern North America and Mexico. The genus Robinia is dedicated to Jean Robin (1550-1629) and his son Vespasian Robin (1579-1662), herbalists to kings of France and first to cultivate locust in Europe.

Magnolia (Magnolia spp./Magnoliaceae) consists of 30 to 80 species from Asia (50), West Indies (8), Central/South America (10) and North America (8). Species separations are possible for the following based on microscopic characters from D. Christensen at Forest Products Lab:

Eastern North America		Europe
Scientific Name	Common Name	Scientific Name		Common Name
M. grandiflora	Southern Magnolia	M. soulangeana	Grossblumigen Magnolie
M. virginiana	Sweetbay
M. tripetala	Umbrella Magnolia
M. fraseri	Fraser Magnolia

Mahogany, African (Khaya spp./Meliaceae) is composed of about 7 species of tropical origin in Africa and Madagascar. It is commonly used as a substitute for True Mahogany (Swietenia spp.) in European/English furniture.

Mahogany, True (Swietenia spp./Meliaceae) is named after von Swieten, a Dutch physician and Baron. The genus Swietenia contains 2 to 5 species native to southern Florida, Central and South America. Jacquin described the genus in 1760. During the late 17th Century and early 18th Century it appears in records as mohogony, mohogany, muhagnee, mehogeny, mehogenny, mahogoni, mahoginy, and finally (by 1724) as mahogany. In France it is called Acajou.

The use of True Mahogany dates to the 16th Century, when it was thought to be a type of "cedar". Cortez used it in construction of ships, while Sir Walter Raleigh used it to repair his vessels. Philip II of Spain, in 1563, used it in construction of doors, windows, bookshelves and desks in the Escorial Palace, and it was used in England in Nottingham Castle in 1680 for wainscoting and flooring, as was the Trinity College Chapel in 1692. By 1724 it appeared in inventories of the Duchess of Buckingham (a bureau) and George I (2 desert tables, 2 clothes chests and 1 dinner table). The Prime Minister (Houghton Hall, 1740) used mahogany for paneling, staircases, doors and window frames. Mahogany wood from Jamaica was first advertised in the London Gazette in 1702. It was commonly used in furniture in England from 1715 onwards, mostly as tables. The tables were gate-legged, with either straight legs with clubfeet or plain cabriole legs. Tables were made with large tops because of the huge logs of Mahogany used.

The first Mahogany imported into England was from Jamaica, followed by wood from Cuba (early 18th C.). By the late 18th C., wood came from Honduras, where trees that grew near the coast could be harvested cheaply. The wood was also imported to London in the early 18th C. from Carolina, Jamaica, New Providence, New York, Virginia and Maryland. In the 17th & 18th C's Honduran Mahogany made its way to England via Jamaica. It was called Jamaican Mahogany to avoid the 1725 duty of 8 Pounds per ton. At this time a black market of "Mahogany Runners" was established. By 1774 the "Jamaican" Mahogany imported to the colonies was 10,000 feet, compared to 500,000 feet imported to England.

Trees were cut 4-5 feet above the ground, leaving the "stump wood" for harvest later, when supplies were scarce and the wood expensive. This lower wood was of beautiful figure (quilted, tortoise-shell or plum pudding) with black spots through it (probably small roots). This wood is most dense and is quite lustrous. [Constantine, 1975; Latham, 1957]

All species look alike microscopically. The two commercial species are S. macrophylla or Honduran Mahogany and S. mahogani or Cuban/West Indies Mahogany.

These two species can sometimes be separated by specific gravity. The specific gravity for S. macrophylla is from 0.35 to 0.65 grams per cubic centimeter, while for S. mahogani is from 0.35 to 0.85. [Record & Hess, 1943] This means that if the sample has a specific gravity above 0.65 g/cc that it is most likely Cuban/West Indies Mahogany. Also, If a sample is very dark red-brown or with a purplish tinge, is dense and has white deposits in the vessels (catechols) it is most likely “Cuban” Mahogany (Swietenia mahogani ).

Maple (Acer spp./Aceraceae) contains 70 to 120 species with 16 species in Asia, 8 in North America and 6 in the Europe/Mediterranean region. The Maples can be separated into two groups based on their microscopic anatomy (ray width), the Soft Maple Group and the Hard Maple Group. Species within each group look alike microscopically. The commercial species are to my knowledge:

Hard Maple Group

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
Black Maple	A. nigrum	Norway Maple	A. platanoides
Sugar Maple	A. saccharum	Sycamore*	A. pseudoplatanus

* Acer pseudoplatanus is known as "Sycamore" in England. Not to be confused with the American "Sycamore", Platanus spp., known as Plane Tree in England.

Soft Maple Group

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name		Scientific Name
Red Maple	A. rubrum	Field Maple	A. campestre
Silver Maple	A. saccharinum

The wood of Hard Maple is hard and heavy and the color of the wood can range from white to reddish brown. It has a fine, uniform texture that turns well and is resistant to shock and abrasion. The grain can be straight, curly, wavy or bird's eye. The wood of Soft Maples resembles Hard Maple except that it is not so hard and heavy or strong.

Maple is used for lumber, distillation, veneer, cross ties, pulp, flooring, furniture, boxes, crates, shoe lasts, handles, woodenware, novelties, car parts, spools, bobbins, musical instruments, piano frames, bowling pins billiard cues, Indian clubs, dumbbells, butcher's blocks, churns, chopping bowls, breadboards, cant hook handles, croquet mallets, croquet balls, turnery, plywood.

With respect to furniture: (C. Europe, Gothic), solid, veneer, bandings, inlays; Violin backs & sides; Cabinetry (17th/18thC England), Seating(NY, NJ, PA & some southern states); Curly & Knurlwood veneers(Ipswich MA); Bird's-eye(L18thC); Secondary Wood(Salem, Boston , etc..)

Other European Maples include:

Common Name	Scientific Name
Balkan Maple	A. hyrcanum
Balkan Maple	A. granatense
Cretan Maple	A. sempervirens (orientale)
Greek Maple	A. heldreichii
Italian Maple	A. obtusatum
Italian Maple	A. opalus
Montpellier Maple	A. monspessulanum
Tatarian Maple	A. tataricum

Mulberry (Morus spp./Moraceae) contains 10 species that grow in North America (2), Central and South America (4) and from Africa to Asia (5). All species look alike microscopically. The only native species that I know of are Red Mulberry (Morus rubra) and Texas Mulberry (Morus microphylla).

Oak (Quercus spp./Fagaceae) contains 275 to 500 species and can be separated into three groups based on their microanatomy; the Live or Evergreen Oak Group, the Red Oak Group and the White Oak Group. Species within each group look alike microscopically. For each group there are species on both sides of the Atlantic.

Species of the White Oak Group were used in American and English furniture. To my knowledge, species in the Red Oak Group were not commercial timbers in Europe and England during the 17th and 18th Centuries. Quercus cerris (Turkish Oak), a species in the Red Oak Group, was introduced into England in the late 1730's from the Mediterranean Region as an ornamental tree. Its appearance in furniture would be astronomically rare. Based on these assumptions, furniture of the 17th and 18th centuries containing wood of the Red Oak Group is most likely American in origin.

Live Oak Group

Live Oak (Q. virginiana/Fagaceae) is native to the southeastern United States. It was commonly used as structural elements (“knees”) in the construction of colonial sailing ships. I is rarely found in colonial furniture.

Oak (Quercus spp./Fagaceae) contains 275 to 500 species and can be separated into three groups based on their microanatomy; the Live or Evergreen Oak Group, the Red Oak Group and the White Oak Group. Species within each group look alike microscopically. For each group there are species on both sides of the Atlantic.

Species of the White Oak Group were used in American and English furniture. To my knowledge, species in the Red Oak Group were not commercial timbers in Europe and England during the 17th and 18th Centuries. Quercus cerris (Turkish Oak), a species in the Red Oak Group, was introduced into England in the late 1730's from the Mediterranean Region as an ornamental tree. Its appearance in furniture would be astronomically rare. Based on these assumptions, furniture of the 17th and 18th centuries containing wood of the Red Oak Group is most likely American in origin.

Red Oak Group (Erythrobalanus)

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name	Scientific Name
Black Oak	Q. velutina	Turkey Oak	Q. cerris
Blackjack Oak	Q. marilandica
Laurel Oak	Q. laurifolia
Northern Red Oak	Q. rubra
Pin Oak	Q. palustris
Scarlet Oak	Q. coccinea
Shumard Oak	Q. shumardii
Southern Red Oak	Q. falcata
Water Oak	Q. nigra
Willow Oak	Q. phellos

Oak (Quercus spp./Fagaceae) contains 275 to 500 species and can be separated into three groups based on their microanatomy; the Live or Evergreen Oak Group, the Red Oak Group and the White Oak Group. Species within each group look alike microscopically. For each group there are species on both sides of the Atlantic.

Species of the White Oak Group were used in American and English furniture. To my knowledge, species in the Red Oak Group were not commercial timbers in Europe and England during the 17th and 18th Centuries. Quercus cerris (Turkish Oak), a species in the Red Oak Group, was introduced into England in the late 1730's from the Mediterranean Region as an ornamental tree. Its appearance in furniture would be astronomically rare. Based on these assumptions, furniture of the 17th and 18th centuries containing wood of the Red Oak Group is most likely American in origin.

White Oak Group (Leucobalanus)

Eastern North America		Europe
Common Name	Scientific Name	Common Name	Scientific Name